(coll. WS)

At a total of coastline of 3,120 kilometres along three seas, France has been predestinated to seafaring since earliest times. Shortly after the invention of the steam engine, French engineers started experiments for its practical application as ship propulsion. Most famous had become the trials of the Marquis Claude Francois de Dorothee de Jouffroy d'Abbans with steamboats on the river Doubs in 1776. On 3 July 1783 he tried his 46 metres long steamboat "Pyroscaphe" with sidewheel drive on the River Saone. The experiment failed because of insufficient power of the engine. Nonetheless the Marquis entered history as one of the pioneers of steam navigation.

After the Napoleonic Wars, France had lost her position as dominating power on the European Continent. When British steamships crossed already the Atlantic, French shipping was confined to sailing vessels and cargo. The difficult start of transatlantic steamer services was described by Leonce Peillard in "Sur les chemins de l' ocean": From July 1847 the company Herout & de Handel operated the first service Le Havre - New York with 4 ships provided by the government. Their names were changed into "Missouri", "Philadelphia", "New York" and "Union". They were wooden paddle-wheeled frigates, listed by Arnold Kludas as 1,500-tonners of a Compagnie Generale des Paquebots Transatlantiques. As the port of Le Havre lacked an adequate modernization, the departure was relocated temporarily to Cherbourg. The steam vessel "Finistere" connected the two ports. Without the necessary financial support, Herout & de Handel closed down the services in December 1847.

King Louis-Philippe supported building 18 wooden paddle-wheelers for passenger transport, but with the revolution of 1848 the project ended. Not before 1856 the brothers Gauthier started transatlantic services with the Compagnie franco-americaine. Their 1,602-ton "Barcelone", built in England, opened a Le Havre - New York service, but after one year it ended. In 1858 the government under Napoleon III awarded a mail contract for New York and the Caribbean to the Union Maritime. This company, a subsidiary of the Orleans railway, was supported by the Rothschild group. Nevertheless the financial resources were inadequate and the project failed.

Compagnie Generale Transatlantique
The bad economical situation of the country became evident during the Crimean War of 1854-55, when for the transport of 30,000 French soldiers to the Black Sea foreign ships had to be chartered. Owing to the victorious end of this war, a new wave of national enthusiasm arose, which caused Emperor Napoleon III to renew the navy and to support the formation of a merchant fleet to establish sea connections to the colonies and to all parts of the world, particularly to North America. With the realization of this ambitious plan he commissioned the brothers Emile and Isaak Pereire. These two Jewish bankers of Portuguese descent ran successfully a carrier enterprise, and when the railways were coming up to replace the coaches, they set a foot onto that business, too. Following the newly-awoken maritime ambitions, they founded in 1855 with help of the bank Credit mobilier the Compagnie Generale Maritime. To get hold of a fleet, the Pereire Brothers purchased small shipping companies and thus they acquired 33 sailing vessels and 6 small steamers by 1856. Headquarter was the town of Granville. First steam operations were initiated as coast lines from Le Havre to Hamburg and from Marseilles to Antwerp. After the Crimean War the company got in financial troubles, but they succeeded in acquiring from Victor Marziou the mail contract and ships of the Union Maritime. In 1860 the Pereire Brothers, supported by Credit mobilier, were in possession of the contract for mail services to New York and to the Caribbean. In 1861 their Compagnie Generale Maritime became by imperial decree the Compagnie Generale Translatlantique (CGT) , also known as the French Line.

For all European navigation companies the route to New York has always been most important. To join this trade, the Pereire Brothers put an order at John Scott & Co. at Greenock for three steamers of 3,400 tons: the "Washington", the "Lafayette", and the "Europe". A vast crowd had gathered at the port of Le Havre when on 15 June 1864 the beautiful "Washington" left with mail, cargo and passengers on board for her maiden voyage to initiate the long-expected line to New York. The two-mast ship with auxiliary sail crossed the Atlantic in 14 days at an average of 12 knots. In 1868 her paddle wheels were replaced by two propellers, thus becoming the first twin-screw ship in the world. The propulsion of her sisters followed the same way. In 1866 the "Pereire" and the "Ville de Paris", each of 3,000 tons, joined the fleet and cut the traveling time to 9 days. As national pride demanded to place the next order with a French shipbuilder, Emile Pereire founded the Chantiers de Penhoet at Saint-Nazaire, supported by the Scott yards. The new shipyard built the "Imperatrice Eugenie", "France", "Nouveau Monde", "Panama" and "St. Laurent", of about 3,200 tons each, whose drive was converted partly during construction, partly afterwards to screw propulsion. Some of these vessels changed onto the Central American route. Their black-topped red funnels became the trademark of the company.

"Washington" of 1864 (Lebreton, coll. Vauquesal-Papin)

"La Gascogne", departure Le Havre, 1886 (coll. Vauquesal-Papin)

Traditional port of departure was Le Havre. An intermediate stop at Brest was abandoned in 1883. All the ports had already a rail connection, but in 1882 Le Havre was the first to get a 'Train transatlantique' to and from Paris. Those specials under participation of the CIWL connected later also Cherbourg, the port-of-call of the most famous foreign companies, and other ports.

In the 1880s the French Atlantic liners have reached dimensions of more than 7,000 tons. "La Champagne", "La Bourgogne", "La Gascogne" and "La Bretagne" were introduced in 1886. "La Bretagne" attained in 1888 an average speed of 19.6 knots, beating the Cunard liner "Etruria". In 1892 "La Touraine" achieved a record of 21.2 knots, covering the New York route in 6 days and 21 hours. Despite of these successes, the French Line, concerning the number of passengers, kept only the fifth place behind Norddeutscher Lloyd, Hapag, White Star Line and Cunard, mainly owing to the geographical situation of the country too far in the west. So the French passenger ships had been no match to their foreign competitors. The three medium-sized ships "La Touraine", "La Savoie" and "La Lorraine" gained more fame for their excellent French cuisine than for substantial innovations. In 1906 however the 14,744-ton "La Provence" of CGT passed Sandy Hook a quarter of an hour later than the "Deutschland" and reached Bishop Rock four hours in advance. Rockefeller was traveling on the "Deutschland" and Vanderbilt on "La Provence" - and they recognized her victory.

"France", departure Le Havre (old card, coll. WS)

"France", Grand Salon Louis XIV (old card, coll. WS)

On 20 April 1912, the week after the Titanic catastrophe, a new flagship of the CGT, the "France", gave her debut on the North Atlantic (the provided name "La Picardie" had been dropped). With her 23,666 tons she had doubled the size of her predecessors. She remained however by half behind White Star's "Olympic", not to speak of the trio of giants under construction in Germany for the Hapag. Unfortunately she suffered from rolling and vibrations. Her turbines working on 4 screws enabled to a speed of 25 knots, thus ensuring a position among the fastest ships of the time. Featuring four funnels between two masts, her outlines followed the style being en vogue. Her fame based on excellent facilities and service which reminded that terms as comfort, elegance and interior design are of French origin, to say nothing of the premier cuisine, all that spreading the flair of French culture and lifestyle for her 2,000 passengers. After only 2 years, all that magnificence came abruptly to an end by outbreak of war. Converted into a troopship and renamed "France IV", she conveyed soldiers and equipment to the Dardanelles. In 1915 she was fitted as a hospital ship and she became in 1917 again a troopship to carry the new American allies to the European front. In 1919 she returned to her commercial operation on the Le Havre - New York route. In 1923 she underwent a thorough modernization with conversion to oil-burning. From 1928 she was mainly used for cruises. During the worldwide economic depression of the 1930s she was laid up. After a fire she found her end at the ship breaker of Dunkerque in 1934.

The successful operation of the British, German and Italian ships on the North Atlantic forced the CGT to order adequate vessels. Between 1921 and 1932 five remarkable express liners joined the company's fleet: Already commissioned in 1913, the launch of the "Paris" of 34,569 tons had been delayed by the war until 1916 and it was not before 1921, that the three-funneled four-screw-liner could take up its service. Conveying 3,239 passengers, 2,210 of which in the third class, she crossed the Atlantic at 22 knots. On 19 April 1939, just before leaving Le Havre with works of arts on board for the New York World Fair, fire broke out and made the ship capsizing at the pier. The precious load could be saved in time. A sad end for the Chateau at sea, as this ship used to be called.

Unlike the predecessors coming from the Penhoet yard, the two-funneled "De Grasse" (23,545 tons) has been the last French liner built abroad, at Caird of Birkenhead, launched and put in service in 1924. Her two turbine-driven screws gave her a traveling speed of 17 knots. In 1944 she was sunk at Bordeaux by the German occupation troops. Lifted after return of peace, she underwent modernization by which one funnel was removed, and resumed her operation on the Le Havre - New York route. Sold to the Canadian Pacific Line in 1953, she sailed as "Empress of Australia", before she got in Italian ownership as "Venezuela" three years later.

As a fortunate ship proved the 43,153-ton liner "Ile de France". This four screw-three-funnel liner had all qualities to join the club of the real crack liners. Although no record breaker, she was considered by many experts the noblest among her consorts. Comfort and artistic outfit has been raised to the imaginable maximum, although in a more fashionable way, helping her getting the nickname Rue de la Paix of the ocean or Boat of Prominence. Her turbines, working on 4 screws, produced 60,000 h.p., making her running at 24 knots. A remarkable innovation she could boast of was the board-plane for catapult start from the stern. This way the mail transport was cut by a full day. Strong vibrations required some improvements on the machinery in 1932. The "Ile de France" left Le Havre for New York on 3rd September 1939. So many passengers took this last occasion to escape from World War II, that beds were installed even in the dining-room. Refurbished for troop transport, she was handed over in 1940 at Singapore to the British Admiralty as transporter. The "Lafayette" (23,178 tons) of 1930 and the "Champlain" (18.094 tons) of 1932 produced no headlines.

"Ile de France" of 1927 (old card, coll. WS)	"Normandie", arrival Le Havre (old card, coll. WS)
"Normandie", Grand Escalier (old card, coll. WS)	"Normandie", Grand Salon 1re Classe (old card, coll. WS)

"Normandie"
Under the presidency of John Dal Piaz the CGT had reached the climax of its development, owning a total tonnage of c. 240,000 in the 1920s. Despite of the great popularity of its splendid ships, their global reputation had never been that of the British and German rivals, possibly because no French liner could boast of the Blue Riband. This was to be changed. When rumours arouse about a new British 80,000-ton superliner, Dal Piaz, in accordance with the French government, felt the need to polish up the prestige of the Grand Nation at sea. First drawings of a French superliner had been developed at Penhoet in 1928. Before construction could start, a new dry and swimming dock, a transfer canal and an adequate equipment pier had to be erected at Saint-Nazaire. At Le Havre, the future homeport of the ship, an extended quay would be needed. Finally, the order was placed in December 1930 under the technical direction of Chief designer Vladimir Yourkevitch, a Russian by birth, who had designed warships for the Tsar. Chief engineer Paul Romano was responsible for construction. Instead of the usual launch, the drydock for construction was flooded on 29 October 1932. Until the completion of the ship in 1935, the governmental subsidy had amounted up to 60 million dollars, the highest ever conceded for a ship. The result however was breathtaking. As usual with the CGT, the ship was christened on the name of a French province, in this case on "Normandie". The ceremony was performed by Mme. Lebrun, wife of the President.

Reporters had described the ship as a cathedral of light, la femme magnifique or Grand Hotel of the prominence. Experts and passengers agreed in the opinion that the "Normandie" was the most advanced, most glamorous and most luxurious liner ever built. In her outlines she was an example of perfect harmony. The wide funnels enabled the smoke diversion to the second funnel and the airshafts below the third to be placed at the sides in order to create an unhindered public space on the promenade deck, reaching from the theatre in front to the light-flooded 'Grand salon 1re classe' and the 'Fumoir 1re' in the aft. Initially a still more "open" architecture had been planned, but in consideration of the fire hazard the ideas had to be moderated.

Below this deck was placed the gigantic 1st-class dining-room, three storeys high. It was designed by architects Patout et Pacon, the 'grand salon' by Bouwen, de Bojen et Experts and the luxurious cabins by Dominique, Schmied and other interior designers. The spacious chapel, adaptable for every confession, represented the style of Patout et Pacon. The statue "Pax" (peace), a work of Dejean, dominated the 1st-class restaurant. For all these interiors the best of materials had been just good enough, appointed with stylish elements by Dunand, Dupas, Labouret, Lalique and other artists from various countries. The most famous poster was painted by famous Cassandre (Adolphe Mouron). The "Normandie" was the absolute highlight of Art-Deco, recorded by the paintings of J. Simont, showing the 1st-class passengers dining, wining and dancing, wearing tail coat and evening dress.


"Normandie", 1st-class dining-room (Simont, Deutsches Museum Munich)


"Normandie" at New York (old card, coll. WS)

Air-conditioning took care of an all around pleasant atmosphere. The technical progress was manifested among other things by a slightly bulbous bow to reduce wave resistance and by the turbo-electric propulsion, decades ahead of any other ocean liner. Cables transmitted energy from the generators to the electric engines, with screwshafts driving the 4 propellers. Turbines, producing 160,000 h.p., helped the 79,280-ton giant to run at a traveling speed of 29 knots and a maximum of 31, enough to make an Atlantic passage within four days at a fuel consumption not greater than that of the "Ile de France" of half the size. In her outlines, the ship was a classic example of perfect harmony from the clipper-shaped stem to the overhanging stern, embodying on a large scale the philosophy of aerodynamics including the tapering height of the three funnels (the third being a dummy). When the Grand Dame with a capacity of 1,972 passengers approached the skyline of Manhattan on her maiden voyage on 29 May 1935, she was given a triumphant welcome. She established a record, covering the distance between Bishop Rock and Ambrose Lightship within 4 days, 3 hours, 14 minutes at a speed of 31.37 knots. She was the first to make her Blue Riband visible by flying a long blue ribbon on her foremast.

But even the "Normandie" remained not being spared from infancy deficiencies. To eliminate strong vibrations at the stern, some changes had to be made in 1936 which let her tonnage grow to 83,423. When in the same year the blue Riband went to the "Queen Mary, the French remained at least the renown having the largest ship of the world. The Blue Riband changed still several times, until the "Queen Mary" had her final victory. All the glamour and glory lasted only four years. When war broke out in September 1939, she docked at New York Harbour, and when the war had reached America, the "Normandie" was requisitioned to become the U.S. troopship "Lafayette". During the conversion works fire broke out in February 1942. The lot of water pumped in by the fire-brigades made the ship capsize on the pier, where she was eventually scrapped in 1946. Yourkevitch's plan to modernize the ship for peace-time duties, by which among other things one funnel was to get removed, remained unfulfilled.

After World War II
The first French ship to cross the North Atlantic after WWII was the "Groix", departing from Le Havre in November 1945. In order to compensate the losses, the German "Europa" (49,746 tons, 26.5 knots) was awarded to France as war-reparation. Renamed "Liberte", she was to take the place of the "Normandie" from June 1946. During a storm in December 1946 however, she collided with the wreck of the "Paris" still laying at Le Havre and sank to the harbour bottom. Between 1947 and 1949 the pre-war "De Grasse" was the only French Liner on the New York route. The "Liberte", raised, repaired and modernized, her interiors being equipped with stylish elements by Dunand and other artists, operated from 1950 successfully until the advent of the new "Fance" in 1961. She found her end at the breaker's yard at La Spezia in 1962. Years after WWII the "Ile de France" resumed her Le Havre - New York service, now showing an updated outline marked by carrying only two funnels. In September 1953 she took up the shipwrecked of the "Andrea Doria" disaster. Her glorious career ended in 1959 at the scrapyard of Osaka. In 1952 the first newbuild, the 20,469-ton "Flandre", had her maiden voyage Le Havre - New York. She was sold in 1968 to the Costa Line, then used as "Carla C." for cruises.

"Liberte", ex "Europa" (old card, coll. WS)

"Ile de France", refurbished (old card, coll. WS)

"France"
Although air traffic had snatched the majority of travelers, the CGT decided for a new superliner to retain French prestige at sea. The ship was to continue the tradition and experience with the famous predecessors. However, considering the changed conditions since, her public space was not as sumptuous as aboard the "Normandie". Major attention had to be paid to economic considerations. That meant to attain a traveling speed of 31 knots at reduced fuel consumption and an updated comfort for 2,044 passengers in two classes over 11 decks with little difference between First and Tourist. The result was as striking as convincing. On 11 May 1960, after a construction time of 4 years, the 66,343-ton giant with a length of 315.5 metres, the longest ever built, was launched at Saint-Nazaire and christened by Mme. de Gaulle on the name of "France". After a test cruise from Bordeaux to the Canaries Islands, on which 34 knots had been topped, she commenced regular services on the classic Le Havre - New York route. She proved being an extravagant ship. From her stylish clipper stem to the overhanging panoramic stern, the well-placed modern funnels with their uncommon lateral exhaust deflectors and the well-proportioned outlines, every inch reflected architectural harmony and elegance. Works of art, from Braque to Picasso, were highlights of the modern interior.


"France", Faliron Bay 1971 (WS)

Spectacular events had been round-the-world cruises in 1972 and 1974, surrounding Cape Horn for being too long for the Panama Canal. Regular transatlantic crossings Le Havre - Southampton - New York continued and connecting special trains did come not only from Paris but exceptionally even from Cologne to Le Havre. But all the splendour of the "France" could not stop the steady decline of clientele. In1974 the proud ship went on her last crossing to New York. A staff reduction was not accepted and growing maintenance and service expenses forced the CGT to finish her operation. Since the intention of the Arabian multimillionaire Akkram Ojjeh to have her fitted as a hotel and casino ship had failed in 1977, the pride of the French merchant fleet was sold against public protest to Lauritz Kloster, who saved her by converting her into a single-class cruise ship at the Hapag-Lloyd yard at Bremerhaven in 1977. As top-speed was no longer asked for, two of her four geared turbines and two propellers had been removed to reduce fuel consumption at a lessened power of 40,000 h.p., still sufficient to make 18 knots. Three side-thrusters on the bow and two others on the stern assisted steering. With blue-painted hull and funnels and renamed "Norway", she went on cruises from Miami for Norwegian Caribbean Lines. In 1980 she returned to Bremerhaven to undergo another modernization. Steam engines were replaced by diesels in 1980 and 1984. In 1990 two further decks increased her berth capacity to 2,560, augmenting her gross tonnage to 76,049, then being the biggest passenger ship of the time. Towards the end of the 20th century the "Norway" could no longer cope with the modern mega cruise ships of the new generation and was facing the end of her career. In 2007 she went on her last sail to an Indian ship breaker. (See also chapters Cruises/End of the Liners and Cruises/Kloster and Norwegian).


"Norway" ex "France" (ad of 1982)

Aspiration for prestige had compelled the great seafaring nations to take up plans for future megaships exceeding everything ever been in existence before. In 1938 the CGT started planning a 100,000-ton liner at a length of 350 metres with turbine-electric propulsion of 320,000 h.p. to carry up to 5,000 passengers at a speed of 34 knots across the Atlantic. Laying the keel at Saint Nazaire was anticipated for 1940, launch for 1942 and the maiden voyage for 1944. Yourkevitch's design of a two-funnel giant had been based on the "Normandie". Provided name was "Bretagne". World War II and the progress of air transport destroyed all these highflying plans, not only in France, for ever.


"France" (CGT ad, coll. HSch)